Political Formations in the Eighteenth Century (Global Context)
Elsewhere (18th Century Political Formations context)
The eighteenth century was a time of significant political transformations not only in India but also in various parts of the world. As empires declined, new political entities rose to power, leading to complex shifts in administration, warfare, and diplomacy.
This period witnessed both decentralisation of old empires and emergence of powerful nation-states and regional powers. The political map of the world was constantly redrawn due to revolutions, reforms, wars, and colonisation.
Europe
In Europe, the eighteenth century marked the rise of constitutional monarchies and the beginning of enlightenment-led reforms. Key developments included:
- Britain evolved into a constitutional monarchy after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. It became a global colonial power.
- France was ruled by absolute monarchs like Louis XIV and Louis XV. Widespread dissatisfaction led to the French Revolution by the end of the century (1789).
- Russia expanded territorially under rulers like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great.
The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity were gaining popularity, and monarchies began to face pressure from enlightened thinkers and revolutionaries.
The Americas
The political scene in the Americas was dominated by struggles for independence from European colonial powers:
- United States: The American War of Independence (1775–1783) ended British colonial rule and led to the establishment of the first modern republic based on democratic principles and a written constitution (1787).
- Latin America: The 18th century laid the groundwork for independence movements in the early 19th century led by figures like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín against Spanish and Portuguese rule.
The revolutions in the Americas influenced political formations around the globe by promoting the ideas of nationalism and self-governance.
Africa
In Africa, the 18th century witnessed internal conflicts, expansion of trading empires, and growing European influence through trade, especially the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Key points include:
- Oyo and Asante kingdoms in West Africa expanded through warfare and trade.
- North African states like Morocco and Egypt remained under Islamic rule but had complex relations with European powers.
- European coastal trading posts grew in influence, paving the way for colonisation in the 19th century.
The political structures in Africa remained diverse, with strong monarchies, confederations, and tribal systems coexisting.
Asia
In Asia, the 18th century was a period of both imperial expansion and decline:
- China under the Qing dynasty maintained internal stability but faced future pressure from European powers.
- Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate maintained isolationist policies (Sakoku) but had a strong centralised feudal order.
- Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia were declining, struggling with internal rebellions and external pressures.
The growing presence of European trading companies (especially the British and Dutch East India Companies) began to influence local politics, particularly in India and Southeast Asia.
Thus, the eighteenth century globally was marked by the decline of old empires, rise of colonial powers, and emergence of revolutionary ideas that would shape the world in the centuries to come.